CONCLUSIONS

Please is very important: you have to go to this link.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qBfuVuelkoY

·                In the nucleus of each cell, the DNA molecule is packaged into thread like structures called chromosomes. Each chromosome is made up of DNA.

·                The centromere of the chromosomes can be established anywhere, if it is in the centre it is called metacentric, if it is a little bit up in the center it is called submetacentric, if it is close to the end of each chromosome it is called acrocentric and finally if it is at the end it is called telocentric.

·                Deoxyribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms and some viruses. Here you find genetic information.

·                The information in DNA is stored as a code made up of four chemical bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T).

·                DNA bases pair up with each other, A with T and C with G, to form units called base pairs.

·                Nucleotides are molecules that, when joined together, make up the structural units of RNA and DNA.

·                A gene is a unit of heredity in a living organism. It is normally a stretch of DNA.

·                Due to the chemical composition of the pentose residues of the bases, DNA strands have directionality. (3'5' And 5'3').

·                Karyotypes are images of chromosomes to display their banding patterns.

·                A karyotype is the number and appearance of chromosomes in the nucleous of a eukaryote cell. The term is also used for the complete set of chromosomes in a species, or an individual organism.

·                Karyotypes describe the number of chromosomes, and what they look like under a light microscope.

·                The karyotype is characteristic of each species, as the number of chromosomes, humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs because we are diploid or 2n) nucleus of every cell, organized into 22 autosomes and 1 pair peer sexual (male XY and female XX).

·                Spectral karyotyping is a molecular cytogenetic technique used to simultaneously visualize all the pairs of chromosomes in an organism in different colors.

·                The virtual karyotype detects genomic copy number variations at a higher resolution level than conventional karyotyping or chromosome-based comparative genomic hybridization.

·                The Female Karyotype contains two X chromosomes and are denoted 46,XX.

·                Males have both an X and a Y chromosome denoted 46,XY.

·                Turner syndrome girls are born with only one X chromosome or they are missing part of one X chromosome.Cause short stature, they can not have children, they have problems with the breast growth and menstruation.

·                Down syndrome is a congenital condition caused by an extra chromosome. They develop a lot of medical problems, the muscles doesn’t get very well. They have mental retardation.

·                Trisomy 18 affects individuals of all ethnic backgrounds it affects all organ systems of the body.

·                The XXX syndrome affects women is caused by the presence of an extra ‘X’ chromosome in every cell.

·                The Klinefelter syndrome Instead of having the usual XY chromosome pattern that most males have, these men has an XXY pattern. As babies, many XXY males have weak muscles and reduced strength. They may sit up, crawl, and walk later than other infants. They don’t produce testosterone.

·                The extra copy of chromosome 13 in Patau syndrome causes severe neurological and heart defects which make it difficult for infants to survive.

·                DNA fingerprinting is currently used both for identifying paternity or maternity and for identifying criminals or victims.

·                DNA fingerprinting uses a specific type of DNA sequence, known as a microsatellite, to make identification much easier. Microsatellites are short pieces of DNA which repeat many times in a given person's DNA.

·                The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a scientific technique in molecular biology to amplify a single or few copies of a piece of DNA across several orders of magnitude, generating thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence.

·                PCR. The method relies on thermal cycling, consisting of cycles of repeated heating and cooling of the reaction for DNA melting and enzymatic replication of the DNA Primers containing sequences complementary to the target region along with a DNA polymerase are key components to enable selective and repeated amplification.

·                Forensic Testing takes various shapes and forms; one of the most common Modern approaches focuses on DNS testing.

·                A paternity test is conducted to prove paternity, that is, whether a man is the biological father of another individual.

·                Restriction enzymes are DNA-cutting enzymes found in bacteria. A restriction enzyme recognizes and cuts DNA only at a particular sequence of nucleotides.

·                In principle anything that lives can be genetically modified - animals, people, plants and bacteria.

·                Not all characteristics can be transferred. Some characteristics occur only by interaction between many genes

·                The Genetic modification provides a lot of solutions for a lot of issues that are considered dangerous, actually the use of the genetic modification is questioned by a lot of people because it can be used in a bad way.

·                Genetically modified (GM) foods are foods derived from genetically modified organisms. Genetically modified organisms have had specific changes introduced into their DNA by genetic engineering techniques.

·                Mammals have been successfully cloned and the human genome project has been completed. This is pushing the scientists all over the world to research many different facets of human genetic engineering. 

·                In humans, the most promising benefit of genetic engineering is gene therapy which is the medical treatment of a disease wherein the defective genes are repaired and replaced or therapeutic genes are introduced to fight the disease.

·                Thanks to genetic engineering, the pharmaceutical products available today are far superior to their predecessors.

·                Genetic engineering has helped with the production of vaccines and other drugs in plants.

·                There is still the risk of a biological         war, because all days there is a lot of advances in the genetical fields.

·                Genetic engineering often uses genes for antibiotic resistance as "selectable markers."

·                In clonation The DNA nucleus was extracted from an embryonic cell and implanted into an unfertilized egg, from which the existing nucleus had already been removed.